| Venetian
Period (1489 - 1571)
The Venetian desire for Cyprus was inspired
purely by profit. The island was well
endowed with the timber essential for
shipbuilding, and formed an ideal base
from which the Venetians could dominate
trade with the east. They continued to
pay the tribute enforced upon Cyprus by
the Mamelukes and when the latter were
conquered by the Ottomans, the tribute
was redirected to Constantinople, the
seat of Ottoman power since 1453.
Anticipating conflict, the Venetians undertook
an ambitious plan of fortification. Famagusta
and Nicosia were ringed with massive eanhworks,
cased with stone. An outer wall was erected
around Kyrenia castle, the gap being filled
with earth to form an artillery rampart.
The best military architects in Europe
were brought in to design and execute
these projects.
All was in vain. A body blow had already
been dealt to Venice by Bartholemew Diaz,
who in 1486 discovered a new sea route
to India via the Cape of Good Hope. In
1570, after an ultimatum from Sultan Selim
II had expired, hordes of Ottoman troops
landed at Larnaca, under Lila Mustapha
Pasha. Nicosia was invested, and resisted
for six weeks, refusing terms of honourable
surrender on rumours of an approaching
Venetian fleet. The city was eventually
taken by storm, and sacked, 20,000 inhabitants
being massacred in the process. Kyrenia
capitulated without a struggle. In October
of 1570, Lila Mustapha Pasha with an army
of 200,000 began the siege of Famagusta.
The beleaguered party received meagre
reinforcements in January 1571, when the
Turkish fleet withdrew to winter anchorage,
but after ten months the garrison was
reduced to 1500 men, whilst 80,000 Ottoman
soldiers had perished. On August 1st,
terms of capitulation were agreed between
the captain of Famagusta, Marc Antonio
Bragadino, and Lila Mustapha Pasha. However,
a dispute arose and some incautious words
by Bragadino resulted in his being flayed
alive.
Later that month Venetian officials handed
over the island together With 300,000
ddcats for war reparation.
October of 1571 saw a European League
fleet destroy the Turkish fleet Lepanto,
but by this time Cyprus was lost and was
to remain a of the Ottoman Empire for
the next 300 years.
Turkish Rule
(1571 - 1878)
The takeover by the Ottoman Empire in
1571 was largely welcomed by the local
population, who had to some extent collaborated
with the invaders and who anticipated
changes for the better. To begin with,
their hopes were justified. The hated
Latin church was uprooted, with many churchhes
being convened into mosques, and the Orthodox
church was restored to dominance. The
feudal system was abolished, and the former
serfs could now own and inherit land.
The population at this time, according
to an official census, was "In addition
to these rayahs, or non Moslems, there
were also some 30,000 Turkish settlers,
who were granted land by the Sultan, and
changed the demographic nature of the
island.
Although the Sultan and high officials
at the Porte in Constantinople may sincerely
have wished fair treatment for their subjects,
the system of government was open to abuse.
Cyprus was ruled by a three plumed Pasha,
who was installed as governor in Nicosia,
with two plumed Pashas placed in Paphos
and Famagusta. Turkish settlers and rayahs
alike were subject to taxes which were
gathered by the aghas. These aghas purchased
their positions from the Porte, and were
naturally energetic in their efforts to
extract taxes from the people, in order
to offset their expenditure, and realize
a fat profit. The Cypriots thus succeeded
merely in exchanging one form of oppression
for another+ Natural catastrophes added
to their woes, and by 1641, with plague
following close on the heels of famine,
the total population had plummeted to
25,000. The Porte sought 10 alleviate
the situation by reducing taxation, and
more importantly recognizing, albeit unofficially,
the Orthodox archbishop as the representative
of the rayahs.
Conditions did not improve when, in 1702,
Cyprus became the fief of the Grand Vizier.
The post of governor was sold on an annual
basis, and the incumbent made it his business
to end his tenure on a wealthy note.
Temporary relief came in 1746 when Abu
Bekr Pasha ruled the country. This enlightened
man undertook many public works, and at
his own expense built the aqueduct which
supplied Larnaca with water for the next
200 years.
In 1754 the Sultan recognised the Orthodox
archbishop as Ethnarch, or leader of the
Cypriot community, and granting him and
his bishops various privileges, along
with the responsibility of collecting
taxes. As the century progressed, the
bishops` power and wealth increased as
they cynically worked hand in glove with
the Turkish governors. Both Greek and
Turkish peasants revolted in vain against
the rapacity of their masters.
In 1821 the archbishop, along with other
clergy and leading Christians, were discovered
to have connections with the secret organization
Filika Eteria, a Greek nationalist movement
aimed at driving the Turks from Greece.
The response of the governor Kuguk Mehmet
was swift and bloody. The archbishop,
the bishops, and many prominent Christians
were massacred, and this was followed
by an islandwide purge of the Christians.
Some escaped by fleeing the country, or
by taking refuge with the European consultants
in Larnaca.
Meanwhile the vast Ottoman Empire was
showing signs of disintegration. After
crushing the Greek revolt with the help
of the Egyptian governor, Mohammed Ah,
the European powers intervened, resulting
in the creation of an independent Greek
kingdom in 1832. At the same, time Mohammed
Ah inflicted defeat on his Ottoman masters
and established an independent dynasty
in Egypt.
In the midst of these troubles, Sultan
Mahmoud II instituted reforms which alleviated
the condition of his subjects, including
those in Cyprus. The farming of taxes
was abolished, but external problems impeded
the implementation of this and other reforms.
War with Russia, which had continued off
and on since 1769, when the Russians won
access through the Bosporus, was weakening
the Ottoman Empire, and after further
defeats in 1877, chunks of Anatolia were
ceded to the Russians. This alarmed the
English, who saw the Russian advance as
a threat to the Suez canal which had been
opened in 1869. An agreement was subsequently
reached in 1878 whereby England would
occupy Cyprus, using it as a base to protect
her own interests and to defend Ottoman
territory against further encroachments
by Russia.
British Rule
(1878 - 1960)
Had Britain taken military control of
Egypt five years earlier than it did (in
1882), it is quite likely that there would
have been no strategic grounds for occupying
Cyprus. However, history cast a lifeline
to that island adrift, and drew it alongside
the flagship of modern Europe.
Under the convention of occupation, Cyprus
was still a part of the Ottoman empire,
and the excess of revenue over expenditure,
agreed at £92,000, was paid annually to
the Sultan.
The first High Commissioner, Sir Garnet
Wolseley, took steps to create a new constitution.
A Legislative Council was formed, and
a High Court was established in Nicosia,
presided over by two British judges. The
district courts were served by one Christian
and one Moslem judge, under the supervision
of a British official. In 1882 the Legislative
Council, formerly consisting of four British,
and three local members, was modified
to comprise six British officials, and
twelve elected local members. The proportion
of the latter, three Turkish and nine
Greek Cypriots, caused an inverse proportion
of outrage. However, in practice, the
Turks generally sided with the British
officials, and in the event of a tie,
the High Commissioner cast the deciding
vote. The tax system was drastically restructured,
and the change of emphasis from direct
to indirect taxes served to increase revenues
whilst leaving more money ir the peasant
pocket.
The British undertook an extensive program
of public works, includ inc the construction
of roads and bridges, drinking and irrigation
watel supplies, and even a railway line
linking Nicosia to Famagusta anc Gflzelyurt
(Morphou). In addition, port facilities
were improved, and administration buildings,
schools and hospitals were built.
When Turkey sided with Germany in World
War I, Britain annexed the island, annulling
the convention of 1878. In 1915, Great
Britain offered Cyprus to Greece in return
for joining the allied cause, but thi
suggestion was rejected, and with it the
chance of enosis, the striving to which
would cause so much strife in the future.
Ten years later, Cyprus became a Crown
Colony, and the High Commissioner was
replaced by a Governor.
Meanwhile, the enosis movement, aiming
for union with Greece, was growing within
the Greek Cypriot community, fostered
by the powerft Orthodox church. The movement
erupted into islandwide riots in 1931,
during which Government House was burnt
to the ground. The uprising was crushed,
and the Legislative Council abolished
thus eliminating the local voice in government
decisions.
After World War II, when 30,000 Cypriots
fought in the British army, calls for
enosis were renewed. A plebicite organized
in 1950 by Makarios, later Archbishop
Makarios Ill, showed that 96% ofthe Greek
Cypriots supported union with Greece.
However, it has been reported that excommunication
was a stick used to encourage the overwhelming
vote. Furthermore, it is doubtful that
many Cypriots understood the full implications
of enesis1 quite apart from the fact that
it was anathema to the Turkish Cypriot
minority.
Post war anitudes were against the old
ideas of colonialism, and when Greek Cypriot
demands for self determination resulted
only in the offer of a new constitution,
the signal was given for Colonel George
Grivas, who used the name `Dighenis`,
after the legendary Byzantine hero, to
launch EOKA. (National Organization of
Cypriot Fighters) This armed struggle
against British rule began in April 1955,
and was abetted in the churches by the
clergy, with the blessing, indeed the
leadership, of Archbishop Makarios Ill.
The latter was deponed to the Seychelles
14 months later after the call for enosis
had been outlawed. The Turkish Cypriot
community spawned their own movements;
taksim called for the division of the
island; TMT was the Turkish Cypriot resistance
movement.
After a conference attended by Greece,
Turkey and Britain in June 1955 failed
to achieve a solution, Greece applied
to the United Nations in 1957 and again
in 1958, claiming the right of self determination
for
Cypriots. This claim, of course, did not
take into account the position of the
Turkish Cypriot minority, and as a counterthrust,
Turkey suggested a double enosis, or partition
of the island.
Meanwhile, Grivas and his terrorists were
actively prosecuting their cause, undaunted
by the emergency regulations, and with
the total death toll rising above 500,
the British were anxious to find a suitable
formula for independence. This was eventually
hammered out in the Treaty of Zurich,
and on 19th February 1959, Makarios Ill,
Dr. Fazil Kuquk (the Turkish Cypriot representative),
plus the prime ministers of Britain, Greece,
and Turkey, all signed the London Accord,
granting Cyprus independence. The agreement,
which left Britain with the sovereign
base areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, provided
guarantor powers of intervention to Britain,
Greece, and Turkey.
The Republic of Cyprus came into being
on 19th August 1960, and on 20th September
it joined the United Nations, and the
British Commonwealth.
Independent Cyprus and the Turkish Intervention
The constitution arising from the London
Accord provided for a bi-communal society,
with safeguards to prevent the majority
Greek Cypriots from dominating the Turkish
Cypriots.
Greece, Turkey, and Great Britain were
assigned the guarantor powers, with
the right to intervene militarily if
the London Accord was breached. The
president was to be from the Greek,
and the vice-president from the Turkish
community, each with the power of veto.
In the government and the civil service,
the communities were represented in
the ratio of 70% to 30%, whilst in the
police and army, the ratio was 60% to
40%. Failure to agree on the structure
of the army resulted in Makarios, the
first president of Cyprus, declaring
that Cyprus would have no armed forces.
This led to the formation of private
armies, supplied clandestinely by Greece
and Turkey.
In legislative matters, separate majorities
were required from the Greek and Turkish
members of the Cyprus House of Representatives.
The major towns had separate municipalities,
and in the law courts, the accused were
tried by members of their own community.
This complicated system proved to be
unworkable in practice, owing to inherent
suspicions between the two communities.
However, a straightforward democracy,
or majority rule, was not applicable
to Cyprus as it would have resulted
in the Turkish community having no effective
say in the government, and would have
almost certainly have led to a declaration
of enosis, or union with Greece.
In November 1963, Makarios submitted
a plan to Dr. Kucuk, the vice-president,
aimed at simplifying the constitution.
The changes proposed removed most of
the checks and balances which had been
built into the constitution to protect
the minority Turkish community, and
were of course unacceptable to the Turks.
To some extent Makarios was under pressure
from EQKA, which, having achieved its
initial goal of independence for Cyprus,
was now pursuing what they regarded
as the next logical step - enosis. From
Athens, General Grivas, the terrorist
chief of BOKA, fulminated against Makarios
and incited his fanatical supporters
to seize the initiative.
Matters came to a head on Christmas
eve, when armed Greeks aflacked a suburb
of Nicosia, Kuguk Kaymakl (Omorphita),
killing or capturing those Turkish Cypriots
inhabitants who were unable to escape.
Armed conflict spread, with the Turkish
Cypriots withdrawing into enclaves to
defend themselves.
A buffer zone was set up and manned
by British troops in a largely unsuccessful
attempt to stop the fighting. These
were later replaced by United Nations
troops in March 1964.
Makarios revealed his true colours when
on January 1 st 1964 he announced the
abrogation of the treaties signed in
London, intending to establish self
determination for Cypriots, which, as
the Greeks were in the majority, would
almost certainly lead to a proclamation
ot enosis. Under pressure from Britain
and Turkey, Makarios repealed his announcement.
In August 1964, well armed Greek forces
attempted to crush the Turks at Erenkdy
(kokkina) on the north coast, in order
to interrupt the flow of munitions from
the Turkish mainland: they would undoubtedly
have succeeded had not the Turkish air
force intervened. This act added a new
dimension to the conflict. Fear of Turkish
intervention sobered the Greeks somewhat,
and they settled down to systematic
economic blockade of the Turkish enclaves.
This situation amounted to partition,
especially as the Turks were no longer
able to participate in the government
or civil service.
Further armed conflict in 1967 provoked
Turkey to threaten military intervention,
but with the takeover by the colonels
in Greece, and the economic boom in
Cyprus, the concept of enosis grew less
attractive.
In January 1974, Grivas, who had returned
to Cyprus earlier to take charge of
the armed forces and head the terrorist
group EOKA-B, died of a heart attack
near Limassol. During the presidential
elections of that year, Makarios clearly
renounced the cause of enosis, and was
re-elected with 95% of the cast votes.
He subsequently ordered the withdrawal
of mainland Greek officers, whereupon
the National Guard, which was under
the command of Greek officers, stormed
the presidential palace in Nicosia.
Makarios escaped, but this attempted
coup, sponsored by the military junta
in Greece, persuaded Turkey to intervene,
as a guarantor power. On 20th July 1974,
Turkish forces landed and occupied 40%
of the island in the north. 150,000
Greek Cypriots fled to the south, and
50,000 Turkish Cypriots escaped to the
north. Substantial Turkish forces remained
in the north, and the civilian population
increased after considerable migration
from the Turkish mainland.
Intercommunal negotiations since 1974
have been fruitless1 and in November
1983, Northern Cyprus declared itself
independent as the Turkish Republic
Of Northern Cyprus. Recognised only
by Turkey, the TRNC is hampered economically
and has not prospered as much as the
south.
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